Key Information

The wars ignited among the remnants of Alexander's realm were extensive and numerous, with battles spanning from Athens to Babylon and beyond. Four principal conflicts, along with several smaller skirmishes, characterized this chaotic period that persisted for over forty years. Casualty figures remain uncertain due to the historical distance and poor record-keeping, but estimates suggest the toll reached into the hundreds of thousands.

Dates: 322–281 BCE Duration: 41 years Casualties: Unknown Outcome: The formal division of Alexander's empire into three main dynastic kingdoms: the Ptolemaic, Seleucid, and Antigonid dynasties, which would govern significant regions until Roman conquests.

Though the wars concluded with a degree of resolution, the path to that outcome was fraught with violence, treachery, and a host of fascinating figures. For further insight into the individuals involved in these conflicts, refer to my character guide.

The First Successor War (322 BCE – 320 BCE)

In the wake of Alexander's death, leaders returned to their respective territories following the Partition of Babylon, which divided the empire into distinct spheres of influence. However, this arrangement quickly deteriorated.

The most powerful figures after the Babylon conference were Antigonus, Antipater, Ptolemy, and Perdiccas, the latter of whom held the most significant position. He departed Babylon with Alexander's signet ring, his body, and the regent Arrhidaeus, creating a potent political image. Rival leaders understood that if Perdiccas returned to Macedon with these symbols, he could potentially consolidate control over the empire. A coalition formed between Antigonus and Antipater to thwart his plans.

Ptolemy acted first, seizing Alexander's body as it was transported through Damascus. He intended to inter it in Alexandria, elevating his political standing. Enraged, Perdiccas marched south to reclaim the body, leading to a disastrous invasion of Egypt, where repeated attempts to cross the Nile resulted in heavy losses. Ultimately, his trusted generals assassinated him, securing their own positions in the aftermath.

A Family Slight and the Second War

Antipater's death in 319 BCE left a power vacuum in Macedon, exacerbated by his controversial choice of Polyperchon as successor over his son, Cassander. Feeling slighted, Cassander sought to oust Polyperchon, igniting the second war among the successors.

Cassander successfully displaced Polyperchon and sought alliances with Alexander's relatives. Meanwhile, Antigonus seized the opportunity to expand his influence in Asia Minor at Seleucus's expense. Eumenes, a former ally of Perdiccas, emerged as a significant figure, gathering forces in Persia to challenge the new order.

The second war concluded with Cassander securing kingship in Macedon, the execution of Eumenes by Antigonus, and the consolidation of power by Ptolemy and Seleucus.

Ending a Dynasty (314 BCE – 310 BCE)

Following Olympias's execution by Cassander, he recognized the ongoing threat posed by Alexander's family. In 310 BCE, he ordered the deaths of Roxanne and Alexander IV, effectively ending the Agread dynasty, which had ruled for four centuries.

This period marked the Third War of the Diadochi, involving conflicts among Ptolemy, Seleucus, and Cassander against Antigonus and Polyperchon. The war culminated in a landscape where five primary successors remained: Cassander in Greece, Ptolemy in Egypt, Seleucus in Babylon, Lysimachus in Thrace, and Antigonus in Asia Minor.

The Final Showdown (308 BCE – 301 BCE)

The last major conflict of the wars was prolonged and bloody, engaging all remaining leaders in a series of campaigns that would ultimately end the decades of strife following Alexander's demise. Each leader sought to claim Alexander's legacy, declaring themselves kings amid the chaos.

This protracted conflict was significantly influenced by Antigonus's son, Demetrius, a skilled commander who captured key city-states and executed successful military campaigns. However, the tide turned at the Battle of Ipsus, where Antigonus was defeated, leading to his death and the division of his lands among the remaining leaders.

The Aftermath

Following the Battle of Ipsus, the remaining successors—Lysimachus, Ptolemy, and Seleucus—focused on consolidating their territories. Lysimachus took control of Asia Minor and Thrace, Ptolemy established a lasting dynasty in Egypt, and Seleucus rebranded his domain as the Seleucid Empire.

The Wars of the Diadochi were marked by violence and betrayal, resulting in significant political shifts. The final outcome established three stable regions that would dominate the eastern landscape for years, while Rome and Carthage began to rise in the west.

The successor states presided over the Hellenistic Era, fulfilling Alexander's vision of a united world. The Library at Alexandria became a beacon of knowledge, Greek culture flourished, and new philosophies emerged. It was a tumultuous journey, but Alexander's dream began to materialize, lasting until Rome's conquest of Ptolemaic Egypt in 30 BCE.